THE
GROCER'S
ENCYCLOPEDIA

A COMPENDIUM OF USEFUL INFORMATION CONCERNING FOODS
OF ALL KINDS. HOW THEY ARE RAISED, PREPARED AND
MARKETED. HOW TO CARE FOR THEM IN THE
STORE AND HOME. HOW BEST TO USE
AND ENJOY THEM-AND OTHER
VALUABLE INFORMATION
FOR

GROCERS AND GENERAL STOREKEEPERS
COMPILED BY
ARTEMAS WARD
FORMERLY EDITOR OF
"THE NATIONAL GROCER"

PRICE, TEN DOLLARS
30 UNION SQUARE
NEW YORK



Copyright by Artemas Ward. 1911
Entered, Stationers' Hall, 1911




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TO THE
GROCERS
AND
GENERAL STOREKEEPERS
OF THE UNITED STATES
THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED,
BY ONE WHO HAS STUDIED THEIR BEST INTERESTS
FOR MANY YEARS,
IN THE HOPE THAT
THEY MAY FIND IT AN AID
TO BETTER DEALING,
WIDER KNOWLEDGE,
GREATER SALES
AND LARGER PROFITS.




 

PREFACE

"If you can fill the unforgiving minute
With sixty seconds' worth of distance run."

--Kipling.

This book is the product of many such minutes stolen out of the hours of a very busy life, at irregular intervals, during a period of about thirty years.

In 1882, realizing that the Grocers and General Storekeepers of the United States greatly needed a book giving information on many points relating to their business, I attempted to supply that want, and issued The Grocer's Handbook. Time and money, as well as personal experience and proper co-operation on the part of others, were denied me, and it is with a feeling of shame that I refer to that crude but well intended effort. Perhaps the present volume is its best apology.

I have never abandoned the hope of issuing a better book--have steadily collected scraps of information--noted points of value--laid plans and considered costs. In the past two years application for information has been made to producers and manufacturers in all parts of the world. So carefully detailed were the communications that return postage was provided in stamps of the countries of the recipients, even those of China and Japan, yet in numerous cases several letters had to be written before any attention was secured, and, too frequently, the replies were indifferent--perhaps it was found difficult of belief that anyone intended to publish a creditable book for Grocers!

Probably the indifferent ones would now gladly give pictures, details and other information, but I was obliged to fulfill my purpose without their aid--to obtain, by personal search and often in odd ways, photographs and other illustrations, some of them rare and difficult of access, and to develop many of the most interesting features from crude commercial reports.

My thanks, and those of the readers of this book are, on the other hand, due to the many leading houses of the world who kindly aided in making it what it is. Personally, I must acknowledge the industry and accuracy of Mr. Charles Martyn, formerly Editor of The Caterer, without whose efficient aid the work would have been too heavy for me.

In so wide an undertaking errors and omissions will no doubt be discovered--I shall try to correct them in future editions. In several instances, prominent houses sent in absolutely contradictory statements on important subjects, while high authorities disagreed with the Department of Agriculture. In one case, a great company, unquestionably the greatest of its kind in the world, ridiculed our submitted text--and a month later its own chief chemist endorsed it as complete and accurate.

The color plates, by The American Colortype Company, tell their own story of modern color printing and a well executed order.

* * * * * * * * * * * *

My connection with the Grocery Trade has continued unbroken during the thirty years in which this Encyclopedia has been taking form--for twenty years in editing The National Grocer (absorbed by the American Grocer in 1894)--from 1884 to 1909 as General Manager for Sapolio, and still glad to aid all its interests--and now, in presenting the completed work, I find pleasure in the thought that I am still serving my friends in the Trade.

ARTEMAS WARD




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> INTRODUCTION

This Encyclopedia attempts to give some information on every article of food and drink, and also touches on many other interesting items handled by General Storekeepers. The first aim is so extensive as to approach the impossible--and to describe all the varied goods of a general stock would be impracticable--but its pages treat on more than twelve hundred subjects. The first item in the text, Abalone, tells of a shellfish of the Pacific Coast now growing in favor--the last line lists Zwetschenwasser, a German liqueur. Gunpowder, Nails, Rope, Shot and other articles are given space, and a few points of legal or commercial import are briefly considered--as, Trade-marks, Partnerships, Good-will, Power of Attorney, and, at greater length, Window Dressing, and the origin of the trade, under Grocer.

The number of new fruits which during the last few years have found their way into our markets; the large, and constantly increasing, variety of other foods and food delicacies, both domestic and imported, now offered for popular consumption, and the noteworthy growth of public interest in, and knowledge of, food values, make it essential that the modern grocer keep himself thoroughly informed and up-to-date. It is this service which the Encyclopedia is designed to render. Where reference is made to seasons, the character of the general demand, etc., it must be borne in mind that the book is published in the northeastern part of the United States and that therefore it may not in such particulars accurately report conditions on the Pacific Coast, the Gulf of Mexico or abroad.

The Grocer who does not think better of his calling in life as he glances over this book, is not worthy of it. Forest and Ocean, Land and Sea, the Animal and the Vegetable Kingdoms--the earth and its fullness--are all tributary to his trade. Vinegar may be a trifle, but he shall see train-loads of tank-cars carrying it to factories. Under Wines he will find twenty pages of helpful information, including a catalog of types and varieties embracing nine hundred and sixty-eight items and more complete than any hitherto published.

There are eighty full-page plates in color, and four hundred and forty-nine illustrations in all. Twelve pages on Cheese contain descriptions of forty-eight varieties. Twenty on Coffee include a color-page showing twelve varieties of leading beans, so natural that they might be mistaken for real samples. Seven on Oysters are illustrated by a color-page and three full-page, and several smaller, half-tone plates. One


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shows the oyster in its various sizes, from the "seed" to a seven-year-old "giant," while others furnish views of planting and gathering in the United States and France. Mineral Waters gives thirty-nine different Springs, their locations and their specific qualities. Tea, richly illustrated, fills sixteen and a half pages, and Rice is shown in cultivation and gathering in many lands.

If the dealer wishes to add fresh meats to his business he will find assistance in the large space accorded to Beef, Mutton, Veal and Pork, showing by colored plates and plain diagrams all the principal cuts. And his troubles are met in several directions, from Awmings to the Ants and Cockroaches which annoy him.

Many extraordinary subjects are touched upon. Kangaroo Tails, as a new meat supply, is immediately followed by Kanten, a Japanese isinglass, and Kosher treats of Jewish food restrictions important to those who have Hebrew customers. Bacteria, Microbes, and Yeast tell in plain terms the latest facts of modern scientific discovery in relation to foods, their flavor, digestion, development and decay, while Food Values devotes six and a half pages to that important topic. Mushrooms, six pages and illustrations of fourteen varieties, is covered thoroughly.

Every dealer should be interested in the liberal articles on Labels, Markets, Restaurants and Guilds--in the fund of information given under the heads of Cigars, Chewing Gum and Sponges--and should be glad to learn more about Cold Storage, Adulteration, Cookery, Preservation and such subjects as Fermentation and Distillation, and how to defend himself against Mold and Maggots.

The APPENDIX, of thirty-nine pages, contains a list of five hundred and ninteen words used to describe foods, drinks, etc., with their equivalents in French, German, Italian and Swedish, which should prove valuable to dealers born in those countries--who, even when well aquainted with English, find many a puzzling question put to them over the counter--and should greatly aid dealers born in English-speaking lands whose trade lies with foreign-born customers. This dictionary is carefully repeated in each language, as "French-English," "German-English," "Italian--English" and "Swedish-English." As the majority do not use more than four hundred words from the cradle to the grave, these vocabularies of over five hundred words in one line of business must be very complete.

The Appendix contains, next, a list of two hundred and fifty-five of the most common Culinary Terms, which explains how the well known staples sold by the Grocer at such low prices masquerade under French names to justify an enormous advance in price when they appear on Menus or Bills of Fare.

Valuable tables of Weights and Measures are also included.




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> INDEX TO COLOR PAGES



Opposite Page

ALLIGATOR PEARS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16

APPLES. Plate I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 22

Plate II - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 26

APRICOTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30

ASPARAGUS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 34

BANANAS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 44

BEEF CUTS. Plate I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50

Plate II - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 54

Plate III - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 58

Plate IV - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 62

BERRIES. Blackberries, Currants, Huckleberries, Blueberries, Dewberry, Raspberries, Cranberries, Gooseberries, Strawberries - - - 66

BREAD. Plate I--Cottage, Domestic, Graham, French - - - - - - - - 76

Plate II--Pumpernickel, Rye, Twist, Vienna, New England - - - - 80

BRUSSELS SPROUTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 90

CELERY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 100

CHEESE. Plate I--Pineapple, Neufchatel, Limburger, Emmenthaler ("Swiss") - - - Frontispiece

Plate II--Camembert, Cheddar, Cream, Edam - - - - - - - - - - - 118

CHERRIES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 124

CLAMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 138

COCOANUT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 154

COFFEE. Plate I--Branch - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 161

Plate II--Beans - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 168

CORN. Plate I--Red - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 186

Plate II--Sweet - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 192

CUCUMBERS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 202

DATES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 208

DUCKS (Wild). Canvasback, Mallard, Ruddy - - - - - - - - - - - - - 218

EGGPLANT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 224

FIG TREE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 230

FISH. Plate I--Sea Bass, Striped Bass, Flounder, Kingfish, Whiting - - - 240

Plate II--Cod, Haddock, Hake, Halibut, Pollack - - - - - - - - 250

Plate III---Bluefish, Butterfish, Mackerel (Common), Pompano, Smelt, Spanish Mackerel - - - 504

Plate IV--Salmon, Shad, Brook Trout, Weakfish - - - - - - - - - 540

GAME BIRDS. Ruffed Grouse, Prairie Chicken, Quail, Woodcock - - - 260

GRAINS. Plate I--Barley, Buckwheat, Rice - - - - - - - - - - - - - 526

Plate II--Oats, Rye, Wheat - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 676

Opposite Page

GRAPES. Plate I--Catawba, Concord - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 270

Plate II--Delaware, Niagara - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 274

GRAPE FRUIT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 282

HONEY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 302

KUMQUATS AND LOQUATS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 320

LAMB CUTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 326

LEMONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 332

LICORICE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 338

LIQUEURS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 342

MACARONI - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 350

MANGO - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 358

MAPLE SUGAR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 368

MUSHROOMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 398

MUSKMELON - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 378

MUTTON CUTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 404

NUTS. Plate I--Brazil Nut, Butternut, Walnut, Black Walnut - - - - 410

Plate II--Almond, Chestnut, Filbert, Hickory Nuts, Litchi Nut, Paradise, Pecan, Pignolia (Pine), Pistachio - - - 414

OLIVES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 422

ORANGES. Plate I--Branch - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 429

Plate II--Florida, Navel, King, Tangerine - - - - - - - - - - - 430

OYSTERS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 436

OYSTER PLANT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 446

PEACHES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 454

PEANUTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 458

PEARS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 462

PEPPER AND CAPSICUMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 468

PERSIMMONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 474

PINEAPPLE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 482

PLUMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 488

POMEGRANATE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 492

SAUSAGES. Bologna, Cervelat, Frankfurters, Head Cheese, Mortadelli, Salami - - - 556

SHELLFISH. Lobster, Crab, Crayfish, Prawns, Shrimps - - - - - - - 346

SMOKED MEATS. Bacon, Hams, Boned Shoulder - - - - - - - - - - - - 292

SPICES. Cinnamon, Cloves, Ginger, Mace, Nutmeg - - - - - - - - - - 580

ST. JOHN'S BREAD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 592

SUGAR CANE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 598

TEA - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 616

TOBACCO - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 634

TOMATO - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 640

TROPICAL FRUITS. Cashew, Guava, Mangosteen, Star-Apple, Sweet Sop - - - 586

TURTLES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 654

VANILLA - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 658

VEAL CUTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 662

WATERMELON - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 388






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[Illustration: A color illustration of four different types of cheese, each labeled with a number.]





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> THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA
> FOR GROCERS AND GENERAL STOREKEEPERS

This Encyclopedia covers all articles ordinarily handled by Fancy and General Grocers, and, in addition, a wide range of information on other subjects more or less closely allied to their trade, or to that of the General Storekeeper. The text has been made as concise as possible, while retaining the most interesting points on the cultivation, manufacturing, marketing, etc., of the principal staples. As it is designed chiefly for trade and public reference, purely technical terms--chemical, botanical, etc.--have been avoided, except where they are needed to evade the confusion which would result from the employment of contradictory popular titles or terms.

The APPENDIX, commencing on page 710, contains a dictionary of all common food names, in five languages, an explanatory list of the principal French Culinary and Bill-of-Fare words and phrases in general use, and Tables of Weights and Measures.

ABALONE: an immense uni-valve shellfish common on the Pacific Coast. It somewhat resembles the eastern scallop but has only one shell. Its flesh, which corresponds in general character to that of the oyster, was formerly eaten only by Chinese and Japanese fishermen, but white residents of the Coast States are beginning to appreciate and relish it. It is sold fresh, dried and canned; in the two latter cases cut into pieces of suitable size. The pearly shell is beautiful when polished and is much used in the manufacture of souvenirs, ornaments, etc. In Japan, the abalone product is an important item in the fisheries industry.



[Illustration: An illustration of two oblong shellfish.]



ABATTIOR (from the French Abattre, "to knock down"): a public slaughter-house. The most notable American abattoirs are those in Chicago, Kansas City, So. Omaha and New York. In the larger establishments, cattle are killed, skinned, cut up and hung in the cooling room in thirty-nine minutes--each carcass being in that short time handled by twenty men. Hogs are killed at the rate of 550 an hour, each being handled by twenty-five men in thirty-two minutes. Sheep are killed at the rate of 620 an hour, the slaughtering and dressing occupying about thirty-four minutes.



[Illustration: Several men bend over large boxes full of shellfish, which are laid out on a shore with some low mountains in the background.]



The wholesale Slaughtering and Meat Packing industries of the country


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[Illustration: An illustration of a large stockyard surrounded by fences and buildings. Several men on horses are riding around the periphery of the stockyard.]

employ a capital of more than $250,000,000 and about 75,000 persons. The value of the output is in the neighborhood of a billion dollars, of which approximately 85% is in the form of edible products--fresh, cured and canned meats, lard, etc.--and 15% in various industrial items.

ABSINTHE: a liquor extensively drunk on the Continent, especially in France and Switzerland, and now largely exported to the United States. That of good quality consists of about 50% alcohol, distilled with absinthium or wormwood and other herbs, such as balm, fennel, anise and hyssop, or their essential oils. To prepare it for drinking, the liquor is mixed with water, added drop by drop and permitted to fall from some height.

Absinthe drunkenness, or even continuous tippling, produces utter derangement of the digestive system, ending in paralysis.

The herb Absinthium is employed medicinally for its tonic properties.

ACARUS, or Mite: a species of insects including many varieties, among which the Cheese Mite, the Flour Mite and the Sugar Mite are common to the trade. The Cheese Mite is one of the most minute of these pests (see article on CHEESE). The Flour Mite is covered with long hairs, and is capable of a good deal of motion. The Sugar Mite is found in great quantities in all "raw" or soft sugars, but refined sugar is free from it. Brokers handling samples of raw sugar are often troubled by acari, as they bury themselves under the skin and cause an irritation similar to the itch. The surface of jelly and preserves that have been kept overlong is frequently covered with mites, and there is also a variety which lives on vegetables and makes itself especially obnoxious in the Spring.



[Illustration: An illustration of a tall flowering plant with compound leaves.]



ACCOUNTS. Family accounts are generally kept by grocers in pass-books. Care taken before accounts are opened, and while they are running, will often aid materially in their settlement. In factory districts, it is not unusual to obtain written agreements that they shall be settled regularly on pay-days. Persons desiring to open accounts are sometimes willing to give security to a small amount, or to name references. The latter offer should always be accepted, as many who would otherwise not mind defrauding the grocer will pay rather than have the case reported to those whom they gave as references. To add each account up every month or oftener and present a bill, is very important. To write plainly in the pass-book avoids misunderstandings. A


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duplicate should invariably be kept in the store.



[Illustration: An illustration of a stockyard divided into four different pens, three of which are filled with cattle.]



In suit for an account, the grocer should be prepared to furnish a fully itemized bill. If a short note can first be obtained it makes the suit simpler even if it is not paid, as it generally precludes all question as to the items of the bill.

ACETIC ACID: which is sometimes employed by confectioners in sugar boiling, to stiffen cake icing, etc., and, in dilute form, is the principal characteristic of vinegar, is, commercially, a pungent, colorless liquid, obtained chiefly either by dry distillation of wood or by the oxidation of alcohol by means of ferments.

Pyroligneous Acid, the crude product obtained by wood distillation, is the preservative principle developed in the smoking of hams, etc.

ACETIC ETHER: is obtained by treatment of acetic and sulphuric acids and alcohol. It is extensively employed in the manufacture of many imitation fruit extracts, particularly cherry, currant, peach, pear, raspberry and strawberry.

ACIDULATED: rendered acid or sour. "Acidulated drops" are an old-fashioned candy similar to the modern lemon and lime drops.

ACORN: the seed of the oak. Acorns are important now only as an occasional food for cattle, but in the early days they served as one of the principal articles of human diet in temperate zones, and even in modern times, during periods of scarcity, they have been found an acceptable food by European peasants. They are said to be occasionally poisonous during the autumn months.

ADULTERATION. The grocer is never an advocate of adulteration. Some manufacturers adulterate for the sake of profit, but even then they are generally driven to it unwillingly by the demand for cheap goods. A fair price is necessary to secure pure goods.



[Illustration: An illustration of a complex of buildings surrounding a large stockyard.]



The cry of adulteration goes to great extremes; the desire to appear critical and to be considered a good judge gives rise to much of it, and no sensible dealer will encourage it. Indeed, an honest and intelligent investigation nearly always proves that at least half the accusations are unfounded.

It should also be remembered that there are many food items which are not desirable when absolutely pure--mustard is "adulterated" by nearly every large manufacturer by the addition of flour, because it is too pungent in its natural


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state; such "adulteration" is not only harmless but may be defended as perfectly proper and justifiable.

Again, many of the statements with regard to adulteration are rendered alarming by the misuse of chemical terms. To tell the average consumer that a table syrup is made of "glucose" is to state a mystery; to say that it is made of "starch treated with hydrochloric or muriatic acid" would cause alarm--yet the final result is a thoroughly wholesome product whose principal constituents are "sugars" identical with, or closely allied to, those into which the sucrose of flowers is converted by bees in the manufacture of honey, and all starchy food is converted by the human stomach in the ordinary process of digestion.

If, as modern medicine asserts, a state of dread affords a direct opening to disease, the alarmists are as dangerous as the adulterists, and it would seem better to live in ignorance than to be frightened out of the world by too critical inquiries as to what we eat or drink.

Much adulteration exists which is deleterious to health, but, unfortunately, it is generally where it is least expected and rarely detected. Laws of the most stringent character are enforced in Great Britain, and fall very oppressively on retail grocers, many of whom purchase goods the purity of which they are unable to determine.

AERATED BREAD: is that leavened by the addition of carbon-dioxide. See general article on BREAD.

AERATED WATER: is, correctly speaking, distilled water to which purified filtered air is added to improve its flavor. The term is, however, frequently applied to Carbonated Waters (which see).

AGUARDIENTE: a brandy made in Spain, Portugal and several Spanish-American countries.

ALBUMEN: a thick, viscous substance found in both vegetable and animal matter. It is the most valuable component of meat, flour and many other foods (see FOOD VALUES). The best natural example is the white of an egg, which is nearly pure albumen. Chemically pure albumin is almost colorless, odorless and tasteless and is insoluble in pure water. In France, large quantities are prepared at the abattoirs by drying the blood of the cattle killed. It is used to clarify wine, syrups and other liquids, in photography, the textile industries, etc. In cases of poisoning by mineral acids the white of an egg is a valuable antidote.

ALCOHOL, Ethyl Alcohol (also called Grain Alcohol, Root Alcohol, Spirits of Wine, etc., according to the source): occurs as the result of fermentation--i.e., the effect of the growth of yeast cells, either wild or cultivated (see YEAST)--of liquid containing a moderate amount of any one of several forms of "sugar." The sugary element is the result of the conversion of starch, either by natural growth in grapes, sugar beets, etc., or by the action of malt diastase, etc., on the starch of grains (see WHISKY), potatoes, etc. The alcohol is extracted from the fermented liquid by the process of Distillation (which see).

Pure alcohol is transparent and colorless, agreeable in odor, of strong and pungent taste and highly volatile and inflammable, burning with a pale blue or smokeless


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flame. If thoroughly refined, the product is identical--both by chemical analysis and in appearance, flavor, etc.--no matter what the source of the original starch.

Brandy and Whisky generally contain about one-half alcohol in volume. "Proof spirit" contains approximately half in weight but somewhat more by volume.

In addition to its use in spirituous liquors, alcohol is employed in an almost infinite variety of ways--in the arts, in the electrical world, in the manufacture of artificial silk, leather, etc., by perfumers, chemists, extract makers, anatomists, naturalists, etc. As Denatured Alcohol (see following), its scope has been greatly widened within the last few years.

Denatured Alcohol: is merely ordinary alcohol with special ingredients added in order to make it impossible to drink it, the purpose being to cheapen it for industrial and commercial purposes by avoiding the heavy government tax on alcohol which can be consumed in beverages. The additional ingredients make it injurious to health and objectionable in both taste and odor, but do not detract from its commercial efficiency. Furthermore, when once denatured, there is little likelihood of it being improperly used, as it is both expensive and difficult to extract the foreign ingredients.

There are two forms of alcohol so treated--one completely denatured and the other specially denatured--the latter for uses for which the former would not be suitable.

The most generally approved formula for completely denatured alcohol adds ten gallons of wood (methyl) alcohol and one-half gallon of petroleum benzine to each hundred gallons of ordinary (ethyl) alcohol.

Among the many possible additions for specially denatured alcohol are camphor, benzol, castor-oil and soda lye, sulphuric ether, etc.

Alcohol for industrial purposes is in Germany made chiefly from potatoes, in France from beets, and in this country from grains, molasses, etc. Its manufacture adds appreciably to the wealth of the nation by turning to account damaged and spoiled grains, vegetables and fruits--all of which can be converted into alcohol thoroughly serviceable for industrial purposes.

The commercial uses of alcohol, when obtainable at a low price, are almost innumerable. In the household it serves as a clean, cheap and serviceable substitute for gas or electricity, for both illumination and cooking. Its possibilities promise to be illimitable, for in France a new process has been discovered by which it may be produced by chemical synthesis, and it is predicted that the cost of such production can be reduced to less than ten cents a gallon.

ALE. This was apparently the current name in England for all malt liquor before the introduction of hops, about 1524. Later, the word "beer" was similarly employed.

The principal difference in the brewing of modern Ale and Lager Beer is found in the process of fermentation. Ale is a "high" or "top" fermentation at about 58° Fahr.; Lager, a "low" or "bottom" fermentation at about 40° Fahr. Each requires a special yeast. The percentage of alcohol varies from four to six per cent in ale against from three to five in lager beer, the difference being due to the greater quantity of malt used in the former.

In America, ale is brewed chiefly from malted barley, grain, cerealin (a compound resembling diastase), grape sugar and hops. All varieties may be grouped under two heads: "Present Use" or "Cream" or "Light Draught" ale, intended for immediate


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consumption, and "Stock Ale," containing more alcohol and extract, intended to be kept for months or years, either bottled or in casks.

Light Draught ales are distinctly an American product, the tendency here being toward clear, light types. In the endeavor to attain this result, some brewers have sacrificed much in flavor, but others have been successful in producing a true "Ale" with a lager beer finish.

English and Scotch ales enjoy a high reputation. The latter are distinguished by the small quantity of hops employed and their marked vinous flavor. India Pale Ale derives its name from a variety originally brewed for the East Indies market, which was especially heavily hopped to better withstand the hot climate. "Bitter Ale" is similarly made by using a large proportion of hops.

"Half & Half" is a mixture of half ale and half porter (see STOUT).

"Musty," in New England, signifies a mixture of ale and lager beer.

When properly drawn, ale should be perfectly clear, contain sufficient carbon-dioxide (carbonic acid gas) to produce a foam or collar on top and a slight champagne effervescence, and have the aromatic smell of hops. It should never be exposed to the air in an open vessel, because of its tendency to ferment and sour.

When brewed by the newest methods, ale does not become turbid at low temperatures, and when bottled and pasteurized can be kept indefinitely without sediment, remaining clear even when packed on ice.

Bottled ale should be kept on its side in a cool place--the temperature preferably not below 44° nor above 50° Fahr.

ALEBERRY: a beverage made by boiling ale with spice, sugar and bread-sops, the last commonly toasted. A domestic remedy for a cold.

ALEWIFE: an American species of herring, taken along the coast from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Chesapeake Bay. It is largely exported after salting to the West Indies.



[Illustration: An illustration of a small fish with pointed fins.]



ALKALINE WATERS. See MINERAL WATERS.

ALKANET: the dark red root of a deciduous plant, of blackish appearance externally but inside showing a blue-red meat, surrounding a whitish core. It readily gives up its red color on infusion in spirits, oils, etc., but not in water, which derives from it only a dirty brown color. Alkanet is used by perfumers, etc., and it is also employed occasionally to color cheese, to improve the appearance of poor grades of port and similar wines, to give the appearance of age to port wine corks, etc.

ALLIGATOR APPLE: a large, smooth, heart-shaped tropical and sub-tropical fruit. The flesh is sweet-scented and agreeable in flavor, but so strongly narcotic that it has never attained general popular use.

ALLIGATOR PEAR, or Avocado: a tropical fruit, native to Mexico and northern South America but now widely grown also in the West Indies and in Florida and other Southern States.

The tree is a fine spreading evergreen with large leaves of oval shape and bright green color, a free producer under good circumstances. The fruit, big and heavy, weighing


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[Illustration: A color illustration of a large round speckled vegetable, underneath which a second vegetable--this one pear-shaped, with darker skin--has been cut in half to display a smooth interior and one huge seed shaped like a teardrop.]




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[Illustration: A leafy tree branch laden with pear-shaped fruit.]

up to four pounds, consists of a single large rugged seed wrapped in a membranous cover, inside a firm, buttery flesh of bright greenish-yellow color, containing from ten to twenty percent of greenish oil. The outer skin is tough and leathery, varying in color, some being bright green, others yellow, brownish green, dark purple or red, etc. The most common shapes are the oval, pear-shaped and round or bell. The large green fruits are considered the best.

Alligator Pears are now obtainable nearly all the year round--the first supplies from Colombo and other parts of South America reach the Eastern markets in January or thereabouts, the Cuban fruits following in April and continuing through the summer to October, those from Jamaica continuing to November and from Trinidad and Granada to January. The Florida supply is heaviest during the months of July and August.

Alligator Pears have advanced considerably in favor during recent years. They deserve still greater popularity, as the large percentage of easily digested vegetable oil or fat makes their flesh exceptionally nutritious.

The fruit is served in halves or sections, as cantaloupes, to be eaten with salt, and pepper and vinegar if desired, or with a little lime or lemon juice and sugar--or the flesh is cut in slices or cubes, similarly dressed or served with French salad dressing. If the flesh is cut into little grooves with a sharp knife, the dressing will be more easily absorbed.

The flesh of the ripe alligator pear is of about the consistence of well-made butter. The fruit is just right when the flesh will yield gently to a slight pressure of the fingers. The skin is then easily peeled off the pulp.

ALLSPICE, also called Pimento and Jamaica Pepper: is the dried fruit of a small West Indian tree called the Pimento. It is about the size of a pepper, or small pea, and is gathered when fully grown, but not ripened, and dried in the sun. It is called Allspice from its supposed resemblance in flavor to a mixture of cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves. It is often used in place of cinnamon.



[Illustration: A sprig of a plant with two long leaves and bunches of small buds at the top.]



ALMERIA GRAPES. See article on GRAPES.

ALMONDS: rated commercially among the most valuable nuts, are the kernels of the fruit of a tree, which is said to be a native of the East and of Africa but which long ago became fully naturalized throughout the whole South of Europe and is now grown with equal facility in California. It resembles the peach tree both in size and appearance. The fruit ripens generally in July and August, and the new nut crop is ready for shipment in October.

Almonds are divided into "Sweet" and "Bitter," only the former being sold as an edible nut. Sweet Almonds are subdivided into several types, varying considerably in size and shape. In the shell there are three principal grades--Paper Shell, soft


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[Illustration: An illustration of a number of men working beneath a row of trees, using long poles to reach up into the tree branches.]

Shell and Hard Shell--both imported and from California.

Of the imported Shelled Almonds, the best known are the Jordan and Valencia, chiefly from Malaga, Spain. Jordan Almonds are long and plump and pointed at one end--the type shown on the Color Page facing page 414. They are highly esteemed both as a dessert item and for confectionery purposes. Valencias are about three-eighths of an inch long, round at one end and obtusely pointed at the other.

Bitter Almonds, imported chiefly from Mogadore, Morocco, are used only for their oils, for flavoring, etc. See ALMOND OIL, following.

Green Almonds are young sweet almonds. They are often preserved in sugar.

Burnt Almonds are roasted sweet almonds. They are done up with sugar when destined for use as confectionery, being then known also as "Pralines" and "Sugar Almonds." Roasted plain, they are employed for coloring and flavoring liquors.

Blanched Almonds are sweet almonds with the skins removed.

Almonds are also sold Ground (dried and crushed), Salted, etc.

ALMOND EXTRACT: is a solution of Oil of Bitter Almonds, about 1%, in alcohol of fair strength.

ALMOND OIL: is obtained by expression from the ground kernels or seeds of the sweet or bitter almond, apricot or peach. It is largely employed in perfumery. The best qualities are light yellow or white in color, almost entirely free from odor and possessing only a mild, nutty flavor. Oil of Bitter Almonds is an entirely different product, which is not obtainable by the cold, or only slightly warm, expression employed for Almond Oil--it is a volatile oil extracted by distillation from the crushed kernels of bitter almonds, apricots or peaches, after the expression of Almond Oil. In concentrated form, Oil of Bitter Almonds is poisonous because of the large quantity of hydrocyanic or prussic acid it contains, but in diluted form, as in Almond Extract, it is a popular flavoring in confectionery, cooking, etc.

ALMOND MEAL, ALMOND PASTE: are made from ground sweet almonds, after the extraction of Almond Oil. They are much used in pastry and confectionery--in the manufacture of almond macaroons and other sweet pastries, in fancy cake and pie filling, etc.

ALMOND MILK: is an emulsion of almond oil and water. It has an opaque, milky appearance.

ALMOND SYRUP: if of high quality, is an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds in barley syrup (then generally known as Orgeat Syrup), or in a syrup of Orange Flower


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Water and sugar. Ten parts of sweet almonds are generally employed to three parts of bitter almonds.

ALUM: a salt composed of the combined sulphates of Potassium and Aluminum. It crystallizes in cubes and eight-sided forms, and has a sweetish astringent taste. It is sometimes employed by bakers to whiten their bread. That used in Baking Powders is Burnt Alum--a white spongy substance produced by heating alum until it melts and then driving off all the moisture by additional roasting. Its employment in baking powders has been much abused by parties interested in other preparations, but if completely neutralized it is harmless. The taste test is a poor one, as no raw baking powder has a pleasant flavor, and an overdose of cream of tartar would be about as bad as one of burnt alum!

AMERICAN WINES. American wine makers have duplicated nearly all the European Wines in popular demand. In some the results are disappointing to the connoisseur because probably of differences in climate and soil, as well as in handling, but in others a high measure of success has been attained--especially in Red wines of the Claret (or Bordeaux), Burgundy and Italian types; White wines, such as "Champagnes" and Rhine and Moselle types; Sauternes, and the stronger wines, such as Port, Sherry, Madeira, Malaga, etc. There are also several American wines which have won distinction under entirely new names, noteworthy among them being Angelica, Catawba, Concord, Delaware, Scuppernong and Zinfandel.

Still wines are produced in both the East and in California, and to a limited extent in the South; "Champagnes" principally in the East, especially in western New York, and the Central States.

In the East the grapes chiefly grown for sparkling wines are the Catawba and Delaware (see article on GRAPES), Elviras and Dutchess (white grapes), and the Isabella and Eumalans (black grapes). The wines from several or all of these six, and other, varieties are blended in the making of the best domestic "Champagnes." The Concord (also described and illustrated in the article on GRAPES) is used for both red and white still wines and the Clinton and Ives for heavy red wines.

The most famous of Southern wine grapes are the Scuppernong (which see), Norton and Ives, the last two especially noteworthy as the source of fine clarets.

The largest wine product is that of California, the average output exceeding 40,000,000 gallons a year, about 25,000,000 gallons of which is "dry" wine. The greater part of the dry-wine district is in the neighborhood of the Bay of San Francisco, the modification of the temperature there by the sea fogs resulting in grapes ripening at the particular sugar and acidity points which are the most suitable for its fermentation. The sweet wines are produced very largely in the hot interior valleys, where the grapes ripen at a comparatively high sugar and low acid point. The industry is conducted on a very large scale, especially in the sweet wine districts--there are many wineries which crush more than 10,000 tons of grapes every season.

AMMONIA: is a gas consisting of Nitrogen and Hydrogen, marked by a strong pungent smell and possessing alkaline properties. Its common form, Spirits of Ammonia or Hartshorn, is water saturated with the gas.

The many household uses of Ammonia are familiar to all. It is also about the best thing to apply to the bites or stings of insects and is said to be an excellent fire


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extinguisher. It is sometimes used in baking powders, but being extremely volatile it soon loses its strength.

ANCHOVY: a small fish of fine and peculiar flavor, a member of the herring tribe, and closely resembling the English Sprat. It is found in several parts of Europe, but is most abundant in the Mediterranean, especially in the vicinity of the Island of Gorgona, near Leghorn, where also the catch is generally conceded to be of the finest quality.



[Illustration: An illustration of a small fish.]



Anchovies are prepared for exportation by removing the heads, intestines and pectoral fins and packing in rock salt in small kegs; to be later bottled, whole or filleted, in oil or salt, etc., or otherwise repacked for retailing. Dutch anchovies are cleaned of their scales, the French and Italian are not. The small fish are valued more highly than the larger.

Anchovies are also extensively potted and made into a butter or paste and a sauce or essence. The ancient Greeks and Romans prepared the sauce or relish known as "Garum" from them.

ANCHOVY ESSENCE: a pink-colored, thick, oily sauce, consisting of pounded anchovies, spices, etc., used as a flavoring for soups, sauces, etc.

ANCHOVY PEAR: a brown russet fruit borne by a very ornamental tropical tree, thirty to fifty feet in height, with large flowers and leaves averaging three feet in length. It tastes somewhat like a mango and is used in the same way.

ANGEL FISH, sometimes, but incorrectly, called a "Porgy": a dark-grey southern fish, resembling a Butterfish, but with long side-fins, weighing generally from three to ten pounds, but sometimes caught very much larger. It is in season during July and August. The flesh resembles in taste that of the Sheepshead.

ANGELICA: an aromatic plant, native to the Alps, which grows wild in Europe, as far North as Iceland and Lapland. The natives of the latter country use the fleshy roots as food and the stalks as medicine. Commercially, the young and tender leaf stalks and midribs are candied for sale as confectionery, and the roots and seeds are employed to flavor gin.



[Illustration: An illustration of a small flowering plant with fernlike leaves, shown from the blossoms to the roots.]



ANGELICA Wine: "white" sweet aromatic domestic wine, resembling Tokay in style. Some varieties consist of the unfermented grape juice fortified with brandy or clear spirit immediately after pressing; others are partly fermented before fortifying.

ANGOSTURA, or Angustura: an aromatic bitters which takes its name from the town of Angostura, Venezuela, the original place of manufacture. It is used as a digestive tonic and for flavoring beverages, etc. It is now made in Trinidad, British West Indies.

ANILINE DYES: a general name for coal-tar dyes, which are chiefly made from aniline, obtained from nitro-benzene. See DYES.



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[Illustration: A color illustration of seven different apple varieties, each labeled with a number.]




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ANISE SEED, Aniseed: the minute seeds of an annual plant, cultivated chiefly in Spain, Egypt, Syria and other Mediterranean countries, but also to a large extent in Germany, principally in the vicinity of Erfurt. It is used as a condiment, in the manufacture of liqueurs, candy, etc.



[Illustration: Two illustrations of different plants; one shows only the star-shaped fruit of a plant, labeled "Chinese." The second, labeled "Common," shows a flowering plant with tall, thin stems and delicate compound leaves.]



Star or Chinese Anise, imported mainly from China, is in flavor similar to Common Anise, but is very different in appearance, being star shaped and frequently of a total diameter of about an inch.

ANISETTE, Crème d'Anise: a liqueur with aniseed flavor. See general article on LIQUEURS.

ANNATTO, or Annato, Arnotto, Arnatto: a red color extracted from the reddish pulp which surrounds the seeds of the Arnatto tree, found principally in South America and the West Indies. It is exported chiefly in cakes of two or more pounds weight, generally wrapped in leaves. Externally it usually presents a brown appearance.



[Illustration: A sprig of a plant with broad leaves and a bunch of flowers with round petals at the top.]



Annatto is frequently used in coloring butter and cheese--giving the former the rich yellow hue required by the consumer without affecting its quality.

ANTELOPES: the general title of a large and varied class of deer and similar animals. The flesh of some is excellent, that of others not generally agreeable to the human palate. See VENISON.

ANTS. The only point concerning these troublesome insects that is of real interest to the grocer is how to get rid of them. The remedies suggested are as numerous as those for a cold! Here are a few:




Balsam of Peru. Rub a thin film of it near the bottoms of the table legs or on the floor, and renew the application in three weeks. In addition, boil one ounce of the balsam in a gallon of water for thirty minutes, and sponge this water, while hot, over wooden floors and walls.


Powdered Borax and Pulverized Alum. Sprinkle underneath the paper on the shelves.


Oil of Sassafras. Follow the train--for ants form a train in traveling--to its origin. Saturate a small cloth with the oil and apply to every portion of the distance covered. If they come out of a crack, pour a little of the oil into it--it is sure death to them.

If ants become troublesome about the pastry case in the summer time, insulate it by raising it on four inverted cups set in saucers filled with water. Give the case a good cleaning and in half a day the ants will become discouraged. Do not leave the case insulated longer than is necessary, as it is suggestive.




APHIS: a plant louse or insect which feeds on vegetables, fruits, etc., and is a source of much loss to farmers and gardeners. It is also of scientific interest because of its


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faculty of emitting a sweet fluid known as "honey dew" or "aphis sugar," which is eagerly sought by ants.

APENTA: a still and sparkling Hungarian aperient water. See MINERAL WATERS.

APOLLINARIS: a noted effervescent table water. See MINERAL WATERS.

APPENZELL: a cheese similar to "Swiss" or Emmenthaler. See article on CHEESE.

APPLES. This well-known fruit has been much improved by cultivation from its original wild state, which is still seen in the crab apple--a small, acid, almost uneatable fruit, and yet the parent of the 1,500 varieties now used in so many ways--for eating raw, in cooking and preserving, for jellies and desserts, for cider and vinegar, etc. The cultivated tree is at its prime when about fifty years old and will bear fruit for more than a hundred years.

The apple contains an abundance of potassium and sodium salts and its acids are thought to be of great benefit to persons of sedentary habits. A ripe raw apple digests in eighty-five minutes. The practice of serving apple-sauce with roast pork, rich goose and similar dishes is based on scientific reasons.

The different varieties vary widely in taste, appearance and time of ripening. Fifteen of the best known types are shown on the accompanying Color Pages--opposite, and facing page 22.

The Early Harvest, a small yellow sweetish type, is one of the first to make its appearance, ushering in what are commonly known as the "summer apples." Of these, the leading varieties are the Highglow, very handsome and fine-flavored, the Sourbough and the Gravenstein--the last-named generally rather large, roundish but somewhat irregular in shape and in color greenish to orange yellow, striped or mottled with red. Of smaller size but of attractive red skin and tender, juicy, sub-acid flesh is the June, very popular in the West and South.

Next come the "Fall Apples," the best of which are: the Maiden Blush, medium to large in size, oblate and regular in shape, and in color yellow with crimson blush; the Belleflower; several varieties of the Holland Pippin, of good keeping quality, medium size, flattish in shape and yellow in color--inclining sometimes to green, and occasionally to red; the Fall Pippin, large, round and yellow, and the Strawberry Pippin.

Of the "Winter Apples," the leading varieties are the Greening, Baldwin, Northern Spy, Spitzenburg, Seek-no-further, Lady Sweet, Gill Flower or Sheep's-nose, Green Sweet, Swaar, Streaked Pippin, Russet, Newton Pippin, etc. More Greenings are sold than of any other winter type, it being the general family apple, both raw and cooked. When first gathered in the fall it is of bright green color, but this gradually changes to a rich mature yellow. The Baldwins are comparatively inferior, generally of a dry, insipid flavor, but they are largely bought because they are sound and fine looking, frequently presenting a better appearance than really superior apples. The Northern Spy and Spitzenburg are generally considered the highest types of the "Baldwin" class of apple--good specimens are handsomely colored and excellent in flavor and quality. The Spitzenburg is of deep rich yellow, nearly covered with bright red, with darker red stripes. The Northern Spy is of similar colors but generally shows more yellow. The "Seek-no-further" is usually of deep yellow, but some varieties are bright red. The Lady Sweet or Pommeroy, one of the most desirable of "sweet apples" for general market


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[Illustration: A color illustration of eight different apple varieties, each labeled with a number.]




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purposes, is of fine red and yellow color, good shape and flavor and excellent keeping qualities. The Gill Flower is commonly called the Sheep's-nose from its peculiar pointed shape. The Green Sweet is a crisp, brittle, juicy fruit, and one of the best late-keeping sweet apples. The Swaar, generally of greenish or yellow color effect, is not attractive in appearance but it is noted as a fine dessert fruit. The Streaked Pippin is a large fruit of mixed red and yellow color, of good edible and cooking qualities. The Russet is the latest comer and the hardiest and is usually kept until the other varieties are beginning to disappear. The Newton or Golden Pippin is now raised chiefly for export to Europe, where it is much esteemed.

Another beautiful and delicious fruit is the Rennet, of regular shape, skin of rusty tinge and flesh of sweet acid and delicately aromatic flavor. It is not, though, a good keeping apple.

The care of apples is simple but exact. They should be kept dry and cool--the colder the better, short of freezing--and all bruised or decaying fruit must be removed at once from contact with sound fruit, as otherwise the trouble will speedily spread to an alarming extent.

The packing of apples is changing. The barrel is being superseded by the box--which is a great deal better suited to the retail trade. In the Northwestern and Pacific States it is employed exclusively. The box most commonly used measures inside 9 3/4 inches high, by 10 3/4 inches wide and about 20 3/4 inches long, and holds about one bushel, or nearly fifty pounds of fruit, varying slightly according to the variety.

When the box package is used, the fruit should be carefully graded to uniform size and packed in layers. If wrapped in paper, similar to that used for oranges, a higher price can be obtained than for unwrapped fruit. A fancy display label bearing the title of the fruit and the name of the grower or dealer should be prominently displayed on each box.

Apple Storage. The bulk of the apples placed in cold-storage warehouses begin to come into the market after the Christmas holidays, those first sent out being the less hardy varieties which will not keep for any great length of time. Some very choice types can be carried over until early in July, just reaching the season when the earlier varieties of the new crop are ready.



[Illustration: A group of men stand in an orchard filling up large barrels with apples that are being brought in baskets.]



Apples are placed in the cold-storage rooms in exactly the same barrels and boxes in which they are shipped from the grower, not even a barrel-head or box-lid being removed. The temperature is kept constantly at about 32° Fahr., and it is a pretty safe assertion that any apples going into the warehouse in perfect condition will


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still be found so when displayed for sale on their re-appearance in the markets.

The New England system of packing apples in sand is said to be a fair substitute where cold storage is not available. A layer of dry sand is placed in the bottom of the barrel and on this a layer of apples, none of the apples, though, touching each other. Dry sand is then placed both between and over the fruit, the process being continued until the barrel is full. Apples packed in this manner keep well, and if one or two in a layer are slightly affected the sand prevents the trouble from being communicated to the others.

Evaporated Apples. The best grades of evaporated apples are sold as "Fancy," the second quality as "Choice" and the third as "Prime." None but the finest varieties of the white-fleshed kinds should be used for the highest grade "Fancy." Fruit that is too poor to be worked into the "Prime" class is generally utilized by chopping and evaporating the whole fruit, without peeling or coring. The product is known as "chops" and is chiefly exported.

The greater part of the evaporated apple output is handled in 50 lb. boxes, especially for export, bakers' supplies, etc., but for private trade a considerable quantity is put up in cartons, weighing generally 1 lb. gross. The latter method is the most generally satisfactory for retailing, especially if the cartons or boxes are correctly labeled with the name of the variety. The labeling is important because of the differing qualities and characteristics of the many kinds. When bulked indiscriminately, a single large box may contain a dozen different varieties, many of them unfit for cooking, and the result of their use is very liable to be disappointing.

See also general article on DRIED AND EVAPORATED FRUIT.

APPLE JACK: the New Jersey name for Apple Brandy. It is plentiful in most of the Eastern States and, as it is generally cheaper than any other spirit, it serves a good purpose in cooking, for sauces, flavoring extracts, etc.

APRICOT: a fruit which in appearance suggests a small yellow peach, but which is borne by a tree of the same genus as the plum. It is eaten in every imaginable way--fresh, the fine varieties being especially valued for desserts; canned, dried, candied, made into jam, etc. It may be prepared for use by the housewife in any way that peaches are.

The apricot was introduced into Europe during the time of Alexander the Great, and was first cultivated in England during the sixteenth century.

The fresh apricot season commences about the middle of June and lasts for about eight weeks.

The California dried apricot product amounts annually to 15,000 tons or more and is supplemented by the great quantity canned there. Only a comparatively small part of the California crop is marketed fresh, as the fruit is of such delicate texture that it does not stand shipment well.

There is also a limited importation of dried and candied apricots from Italy and the south of France.

APRICOT BRANDY: a liquor distilled from fermented apricot juice.

APRICOTINE, Crème d'Abricot. See general article on LIQUEURS AND CORDIALS.



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[Illustration: A color illustration of an apricot branch laden with three ripe apricots. An inlaid box shows an apricot split in half to display the pit.]




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AQUA VITAE, Latin for "water of life": a name familiarly applied to the leading native distilled spirit. Thus, it is "usquebaugh" or whisky in Scotland and Ireland; "geneva" or gin in Holland; and "eau de vie" (French for "water of life") or brandy in France. When the term is employed in England, French brandy is understood.

AQUAVIT, a modification of Aqua Vitae: a liquor distilled from wheat and potatoes, originally made in Norway.

ARACHIDE OIL: another name for Peanut Oil (which see).

ARGOL: is crude Cream of Tartar (which see). It is held in solution in the juice of grapes but it is not soluble in alcoholic fluids, so the formation of alcohol during the fermentation of wine results in its precipitation. In wines bottled before they are fully ripe, the argol is precipitated on the side of the bottle in a sort of crust, thus forming what is called "crusted wine." The imported product comes chiefly from France and Italy.

AROMA: a pleasing odor, a delicately rich and spicy fragrance, generally applied to the fragrance of wine, coffee, etc.

ARRACK, Arack, Arracki, Ariki, Araka, etc.: a general name for numerous spirituous liquors drunk in the East, variously made from coarse palm sugar or "Jaggery," rice, kumiss, the juice of dates, cocoanuts and other palms, etc.

The "Saki" or Rice Spirit of Japan is a softened sound of "Arracki."

Arrack is consumed here to a limited extent, that from Batavia being considered the best. It is too powerful to be generally popular as a beverage, but it finds favor for use in punches and with grape fruit, etc. When sliced pineapples are put into Arrack and the spirit is kept for some time, it mellows to a delicious flavor and many consider it then unrivaled for "nectarial punch" or "rack punch."

ARROW-ROOT: a starch obtained from the root of a West Indian plant, largely cultivated in all tropical countries. Its name is said to have been obtained from the fact that the Indians used the fresh roots to cure the wounds made by poisoned arrows. More probably it is derived from Ara, the old Indian name of the plant.



[Illustration: An illustration of the roots of a plant, accompanied by a second illustration of a stem with broad leaves that terminates in two small bell-shaped flowers.]



The roots are dug when they are about a year old. When good, they contain about 23 per cent. of starch. In Bermuda and Jamaica they are first washed, then cleaned of the paper-like scale, washed again, drained and finally reduced to a pulp by beating them in mortars or subjecting them to the action of the wheel-rasp. The milky liquid thus obtained is passed through a coarse cloth or hair sieve and the starch allowed to settle at the bottom as an insoluble powder. This powder, dried in the sun or in drying houses, is the "arrow-root" of commerce and it is at once packed for market in air-tight cans, packages or cases.

Arrow-root has in the past been quite extensively adulterated with potato starch and other similar substances, so care is needed in selection and buying. The genuine


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article is a light, white powder (the mass feeling firm to the finger and crackling like newly fallen snow when rubbed or pressed), odorless when dry, but emitting a faint, peculiar odor when mixed with boiling water, and swelling on cooking into perfect jelly, very smooth in consistence--in contradistinction to adulterated articles mixed with potato flour and other starches of lower value which contain larger particles.

Arrow-root is used as an article of diet in the form of biscuits, puddings, jellies, cakes, etc., and also with beef tea, milk or veal broth, or plain boiled with a little flavoring added, as an easily digestible food for invalids and children.

ARTICHOKE: a plant resembling the thistle, which is cultivated for its flowering head, gathered before the flower expands. The edible portion is the fleshy part of the calyx--the "bottom" or basin of the blossom--and the base of the leaves of the flower. The flesh corresponds to what children call the "cheese" of the ordinary thistle. As eaten here, it is generally boiled before serving, but in Europe it is popular raw, seasoned only with salt and pepper.



[Illustration: An illustration of an artichoke cut in half to display the inner structure.]



If cut so as to leave an inch or two of stem, artichokes possess good keeping qualities, frequently remaining quite fresh for two weeks or longer under average retail conditions.

Canned artichokes, principally the fonds or "bottoms" only, are imported in large quanties from Italy and France. The small artichoke buds are used chiefly for garnishing.

The Jerusalem Artichoke (which see) is an entirely different plant.

ASH: a word generally employed in food analysis to designate the mineral components (salts, etc.), as they form the residue or "ash" left after the application of heat sufficient to destroy all combustible components. See FOOD VALUES.

ASHES. Formerly, all wood ashes were saved by prudent housewives and used for soap making, because of their strong percentage of lye, and in some sections the ashes of plants, especially of ferns, are still dampened and roughly made into balls for use in house cleaning. The cheapness of modern cleaning compounds has, though, practically ended this little economy.

ASPARAGUS: a native of Europe, which was a favorite vegetable of the ancient Romans. In this country, only the "spears" are eaten but in other parts of the world the seeds have been largely used for coffee--they are still recommended for that purpose in some parts of Europe--and a fermented spirit is made from the berries.

An asparagus bed will continue to produce for a century, but it is at its best between the third and sixth years. Its commercial productivity is generally limited to fifteen years, as the stalks become smaller and less desirable with age unless fertilization is very heavy. The roots are buried from four to ten inches below the level and the sprouts or spears are cut as soon as they reach the surface or a few inches above it and are then tied in bunches for the market.



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[Illustration: A collage (in color) of several varieties of asparagus and the tools used to cut and bundle the vegetable. An inset box shows a bundle of asparagus tied at the top and bottom.]




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The extension of cultivation has resulted in changing asparagus from a vegetable almost exclusively for the well-to-do into one within the reach of nearly everybody. It is furthermore a vegetable of great adaptability--it can be readily grown all the year round, though the northern winter supply is necessarily somewhat expensive, and is nearly as good canned as fresh.

The two principal market divisions are into the "green," in all sizes and qualities and varying from bright green to purplish; and the "white," generally more or less tinted with purple and usually in the large size. The white is obtained chiefly by deep planting of the roots or by banking earth up around the shoots, but some special varieties grow nearly white without this assistance. The preference for one or the other is in some sections a matter of fixed local sentiment, and in others is subject to changing fashion. New England and Southern trade perfer the green; the West and Northwest, the white, and New York vacillates between the two.

In cooking fine fresh asparagus, it is best to stand the bunch on end, leaving about an inch of the tips above the surface of the water. In this way it is possible to cook the spears thoroughly without destroying the appearance of the tips. If the tips are not sufficiently cooked by the steam, the bunch may be laid on its side for a few minutes immediately prior to taking out.

ASPIC: the name given to a clear savory jelly made from meat and used to decorate entrées, tongues, salads, etc. The word is derived from "Spike jelly," i. e., jelly flavored with "Spike" or "French" lavender, at one time a popular dessert.

ASSETS: the whole available property of a merchant or a firm. In computing the assets of a store a great mistake is made when everything in stock is put down at its original price. The available value is rarely more than what the goods would bring at auction.

AVOCADO: a salad fruit gaining in popularity. See ALLIGATOR PEAR.

AVOIRDUPOIS: the system of weights used for everything except medicines, precious stones and precious metals. A pound avoirdupois contains 16 ounces or 7,000 grains (see Weights in APPENDIX). The name is derived from the old French word aver (goods) de (of) peis (weight).

AWNINGS: are made usually from sail duck canvas and vary in price and durability according to the heaviness of the canvas. Permanent awnings are often of corrugated iron, but the best qualities of canvas ought to last very nearly as long. The practice of whitewashing the awning in order to prevent mildew, is a useless waste of time and money--it does prevent mildew, but the lime in the whitewash eats into the cloth and renders it brittle and rotten. The tendency to forbid fixed roofs or awnings over the public streets is steadily growing, but the grocer will often find smaller awnings over his outside display of fruits and vegetables profitable if not really indispensible.

AXLE-GREASE: used for lubricating axles. The basis of the different brands is a compound of fatty oils to which is added tar, graphite, or mica to increase the durability of the grease and give it a better surface.



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BABCOCK TEST: widely employed for determining the richness of milk and cream. The essential principle of the process is that sulphuric acid added in the proper proportion dissolves all components of the milk except the fat, permitting the entire fat content to rise to the surface to be measured. In creameries, to facilitate the process, the samples held in closed test-bottles, are, after the addition of the acid, agitated in centrifugal machines for some minutes before and after the application of a certain quantity of hot water.

BACON: is the cured and smoked meat of the breast-pieces, sides and belly of the pig, the breast-pieces being generally employed for choice "breakfast bacon."

In buying, one should look for thin rind and fairly even streaking of tender red lean and firm white fat. That with yellow fat should be avoided. As it loses in weight with keeping, a retailer should not carry it in greater quantities than required to meet current demands.

Bacon should be kept in a cool, dry place. The injunction to avoid exposure to the sun, applies with particular force to the sliced varieties packed in tin and glass.

Instead of purchasing bacon by the pound and having it cut in slices, the average householder will do better to take it by the whole strip in canvassed or wrapped form. If freshly cured when bought and if the cover is replaced each time after opening, it is easily kept in good condition until consumed.

Bacon is a nutritious as well as popular article of diet. Some people of sedentary habits find it hard to digest, but the choicer kinds are quite frequently prescribed as part of invalid dietaries, in place of cod liver oil and similar preparations, the curing and smoking of the bacon-fat aiding in its assimilation.

Broiling is the best method of cooking bacon, but careful frying will do fairly well. The slices or rashers should be very thin, not less than six slices to the inch. The skin on the one side and the smoke-colored edge on the other should be cut off before cooking. The broiler or pan should be warm before the slices are put on and the fire should be brisk. Some people like the bacon crisp, but it is more acceptable to the average palate when nicely browned but still elastic. It should be eaten immediately after cooking, as if allowed to stand for any length of time both flavor and tenderness are lost to a large extent. See Color Page opposite 292.

BACTERIA: the family name which includes a great many of the smallest varieties of micro-organisms or "microbes"--minute vegetable growths. They are found in three chief forms--round, rod-shaped and spiral--but as a class they are distinguished by their reproduction by fission--the full grown bacterium, except in a few cases, multiplying by dividing itself instead of producing others by budding (as yeasts) or by seeds or spores (as molds). They are universally recognized as of vegetable nature but some types are motile, the power of movement being often due to hair-like processes called flagella. They are so small that they are discernible only by microscopes of high power--even the width of the finest needle would, compared to a bacterium, look like the width of a man's thumb beside a speck of dust. They are as a class the most important both for good and evil, of all microbes, the most numerous, the most vigorous--and the most difficult to control, for where the conditions are favorable, millions can result within twenty-four hours from a single active specimen left undisturbed. They are present everywhere that life is found, and some of them are always at work in all kinds of moist food unless hermetically sealed or


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held at the freezing or boiling points. Freezing will stop their increase but only heat considerably above the boiling point, or long continued boiling, is a sure destroyer of all kinds.

Bacteria are found in great numbers also in various parts of the human body, but under normal conditions the presence there of some types is not only harmless, but absolutely necessary to health and life--for there are, from the human stand-point, both "good" and "bad" bacteria, and we need the former to counteract the latter.

In addition to their functions in the human body--which subject belongs rather in the province of the physician than the layman--and their value in the general economy of the universe--which is too wide a subject for discussion here--bacteria, properly controlled, are of great value in the production of many foods. Their presence in various articles assists digestion by the chemical changes effected and also by producing flavors which stimulate the proper secretion of the digestive fluids which are not excited by flavorless articles of diet.

Some varieties, for example, are almost indispensable adjuncts of butter and cheese making. The "ripening" of cream before churning, is merely waiting for chemical changes to be effected by the growth and increase in it of good bacteria. One thousand million of bacteria to the square inch is a conservative estimate for well ripened cream. Butter made from cream too fresh, and therefore deficient in bacterial life, is flavorless. This ripening of cream is not new--though the knowledge of the cause of the change is. Long before the presence and activity of bacteria were discovered, the butter maker used to set his cream aside and allow his unsuspected helpers to ripen it before he commenced churning. Another of the secrets of good butter making is though to know how far to let this change continue, for if overdone the cream is spoiled.

Many bacteriologists have made a study of the production of the best kind of bacteria for the use of butter-makers, and certain varieties can now be procured in open market under the name of "Pure-Cultures." These are used in much the same manner as yeast is used by bakers.

In the manufacture of cheese, bacteria play an even more important part--in fact, its manufacture without them is inconceivable, as the flavors for which cheeses are prized are directly attributable to bacterial agencies--though in some cases, as Brie, Camembert, Gorgonzola, Roquefort and Stilton, credit must also be given to the employment of special "mold" microbes. The production and sale of bacteria for cheese making has reached an active stage in Europe and it is only a question of time when it will be possible to set cultures for all the choicest imported cheeses at work in local American dairies.

Again, the only good table vinegar is the result of the activity of a species of acid-producing bacteria, and even the lactic bacterium, which incurs the enmity of the unthinking by "souring" the milk, is a very good friend--in this particular case the flavor of the milk is spoiled for many people, but the lactic acid formed makes it an especially health-giving drink and prevents for a time other noxious bacteria from rendering it dangerous by decomposition. Indeed, milk that has been "preserved" from souring by checking the formation of lactic acid may prove distinctly dangerous for consumption even though the fresh flavor is retained.

These instances give some idea of the good services rendered under certain conditions by many kinds of bacteria--and they are also indispensable to agriculture


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and other industries--but in the retailer's establishment and the household they are best regarded as enemies to be fought at every turn, for their uncontrolled access to fresh food is certain to result in loss and sometimes in danger to health. They are far more generally destructive than either wild yeast or molds. All real putrefaction is due to the action of bacteria--the breaking down of the structure of the food as they feed on certain elements in it and other changes caused by their growth and multiplication--and, as already stated, they are present everywhere, being especially plentiful in and around human habitations. Thoroughly dry, salted, smoked and (under certain conditions) spiced and pickled foods are safe from their depredations, but any fresh foods that contain from 25% to 30% moisture, except those that are very acrid or very heavily sugared, offer suitable soil for their growth and multiplication--if undisturbed, they rapidly take them through the various stages of putrefaction to the culminating point of decay.

Daylight, sunshine and cleanliness are opposed to bacteria, so stores and homes, and especially kitchens, should be blessed with all three as a preliminary safeguard. Next, fresh meats, canned goods (after opening) and similar foods should be eaten as fresh as possible. When immediate consumption is impossible, a good refrigerator offers a considerable measure of temporary protection, but it is only temporary, for the growth of some kinds of bacteria is checked by nothing short of freezing.

As already stated, boiling continued for an hour or so after the full heat has permeated every part of the food will kill all kinds of bacteria--will sterilize it--but this must be followed by immediate and hermetical sealing while still boiling hot, or new bacteria may get into it and start propagation afresh.

BAGS. Formerly the making of paper bags was one of the duties of the grocer's assistants, but they are now made more cheaply by machinery. Many manufacturers, desirous of advertising their wares, print paper bags and supply them to the trade at a nominal price, or give them with every sale of their own goods, but every good grocer can better afford to advertise his own store in that way, than to make the trifling saving.

Paper bags are made in a great variety of sizes and qualities. The present self-opening square bag was invented in 1883, following closely after the introduction of the satchel bottom bag. (See also PAPER and WAXED PAPER.)

BAKING. See sub-head in general article on COOKERY.

BAKING POWDER: a compound used in place of yeast, in which an acid acting upon an alkali generates carbon-dioxide (carbonic acid gas). As this action takes place as soon as the powder is moistened, the dough is made ready for baking more promptly than when yeast is used.

Practically all baking powders are composed of an acid, an alkali and a filler. The alkali is nearly always Bicarbonate of Sodium, and starch is generally employed as the filler, but there is a wide variation in the acid constituent used, and baking powders may be conveniently classed according to its nature. They may be recognized as follows:

(1) Tartrate Powders, in which the acid constituent is cream of tartar or tartaric acid:--Royal, Dr. Price's, Cleveland's, Sea Foam, etc.



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(2) Alum Powders, in which the acid constituent is generally a calcined double sulphate of aluminum and sodium:--Davis, Calumet, K. C., etc.

(3) Phosphate Powders, in which the acid constituent is acid calcium phosphate:--Horsford's, What, etc.

In the process of baking, the chemical constituents undergo certain changes, so that the residue in the finished bread is of somewhat different character from the original ingredients. That left in food, when cream of tartar powders are used, is rochelle salts; powders founded on phosphates leave calcium and sodium phosphates, and alum powders leave glauber's salt and a salt of aluminum. The quantity is, however, in each case very small.

The date when baking powder was first manufactured is involved in some doubt, but it is known that Preston & Merrill, of Boston, made it prior to 1855, the common name then being "yeast powder." Phosphate powders were invented by Professor E. N. Horsford, of Cambridge, Mass., in 1857, and their manufacture commenced soon thereafter by the Rumford Chemical Works, of Providence, R. I. Royal Baking Powder was first introduced in 1867 and Alum powders about the year 1875.

Grocers should not sell baking powders which do not give entire satisfaction, even if they are cheap and pay a good profit, because the loss resulting from a dissatisfied customer is likely to be much more than the profit on the baking powder. Private brands should be avoided because of the uncertainty as to their true character and legality under the Pure Food Laws. It is safest to buy only well known "regular" brands bearing the name of a responsible manufacturer.

Care should be taken to keep all baking powders in a dry place as they lose their strength if exposed to dampness.

BALM, Balm Mint, Lemon Balm. See GARDEN BALM.

BALYX, or Bailk: an European, originally Russian, term for salted or smoked Sturgeon.

BAMBOO SHOOTS: young shoots of the bamboo plant, eaten as a vegetable by the Chinese and one of the characteristic components of Chop Suey.



[Illustration: An illustration of the end of a banana branch which terminates in a flower.]



BANANAS. The banana, the most prolific fruit plant known, is a native of the East Indies but is now cultivated in all tropical countries. It is palm-like in appearance, but is in fact a large "plant," the thick, soft stem being formed by the overlapping of the long vertical leaf-stalks. This stem in the dwarf types is only about four feet in height, but in the most widely known varieties it reaches from twelve to twenty feet, up to even forty feet, with a diameter in the latter case of twelve to sixteen inches. The leaves spread out from the top of the sheath, each from six to ten feet in length by two feet or so in width.

The flowers, long and narrow, generally red, sometimes pink and yellow in color, are at first folded


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[Illustration: An illustration of a man sitting on a hill overlooking a river, on the other side of which lies a line of houses which are raised on stilts.]

close together to form a head at the end of a large drooping spike. Those at the point of the spike die unproductive, but the others, commencing from the stem side, rapidly change into fruit, layer by layer in circles around the stem, which steadily elongates so as to give each layer or "hand" plenty of room to develop--some branches containing as many as 160 fruits. A branch is known commercially as a "bunch"--the standard size being nine "hands" or "ridges," or "layers" to a stem, with from ten to fifteen bananas to a "hand." In Central America, the bunches often run a good deal larger.

Contrary to popular belief, bananas do not grow on the tree as they hang in the store, but with the small end of the fruit pointing upward.

After the fruit is taken, the plant is cut down--a new stalk growing up again and producing fruit in ten to twelve months. This course is repeated for about ten years, when the vigor of the plant generally decreases and it is replaced by a new cutting. For commercial purposes, the banana is cultivated with a good deal of care--it is set out in hills and rows very much like maize, except for the much larger distances separating the hills, and is carefully weeded and watched--but as a native food it needs very little attention, all that is necessary being to loosen the earth around the roots every season and to remove any suckers thrown up and plant them at requisite distances.

The yellow bananas are everywhere the most plentiful, but the red varieties are raised in considerable quantities in Cuba and Central America. Their respective merits are entirely a matter of individual opinion.

The "fig" or "lady-finger" banana, a very small, thin-skinned yellow variety, is the most esteemed in tropical countries--the flesh is finer and the flavor very soft and sweet.

Bananas are brought to our markets in a green state, coming chiefly from Jamaica and Central America. As they are easily frozen, they are in cold weather packed very carefully before shipping--but are always sent at the risk of the party ordering.

When received by the retailer or consumer in green condition, they should be kept in a moderately warm room or cellar until they begin to show color. Both cold and excessive heat will prevent them from maturing satisfactorily. When ripened, they are especially sensitive to low temperature and will readily deteriorate in any place where the thermometer registers below 50° Fahr. Placing in a refrigerator, or even laying on a cold marble slab, will turn them black and may spoil their flavor.

In selecting bunches, give the preference to those with stems still greenish in color and bearing fruit full and plump in appearance. If the fruit is thin or flat


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[Illustration: Two men stand next to a bent-over banana tree; one is chopping a bunch of bananas from the tree with a large knife. Two other men look on from further down the lane.]




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[Illustration: Two men standing next to a freight train work at passing bunches of bananas, which are piled alongside the train, to two other men inside an open car.]

looking, the bunch was probably cut too soon and in that case, though the fruit may ripen and become yellow, it will never attain the flavor and delicacy of that properly developed on the plant. Some varieties are naturally more or less "flat" in appearance even when fully developed, but as they are generally inferior in quality, it is safest for the average retailer to adhere to the rule to take only those "full and plump."

Properly selected and carefully ripened to a good deep yellow, the banana of the northwestern retailer is just as delicious as the fruit plucked from the plant in its tropical home.

The banana is in this country nearly always eaten raw, but in the West Indies and other tropical and sub-tropical parts it is also baked and otherwise cooked, both as a vegetable and dessert, made into flour for bread, dried black in the sun after the manner of figs, preserved with sugar and with vinegar, and pressed and fermented to yield a spirituous drink resembling cider.

The Plantain (which see) is of the banana family and the fruit resembles a yellow banana, but it is larger and coarser and suitable only for cooking.

BANANA EXTRACT. See general article on EXTRACTS.

BANNOCK: in Scotland and the northern counties of England, a flat round cake made of oat, rye or barley meal, baked on the hot hearth or on an iron plate over the fire. The bannock is the primitive cake, varied in material, of every country.



[Illustration: A line of people carry bunches of bananas across a bridge onto a steamer.]



For consumption in this country, bannocks are enriched by adding chopped almonds, orange peel, etc., to the dough.

BAOBAB, or Monkey Bread: the fruit of a low abnormally thick-trunked tree, native to Africa but grown also in India. It is generally oval in shape and about nine inches in length. It is downy in appearance, but under the down is a strong woody shell, enclosing a fibrous and farinaceous pulp of sub-acid flavor. The juice, slightly sweetened, is frequently used in the treatment of tropical fevers.



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[Illustration: A color illustration of a banana trees growing in the wild, accompanied by a cut showing a bunch of bananas and one single banana with its peel pulled back to show the interior of the fruit.]




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BARBADOS GOOSEBERRY: the edible fruit of the Pereskia Aculeata, a cactus found in the West Indies and distinguished as leaf-bearing in the ordinary sense of the word. It somewhat resembles the gooseberry in appearance, is generally yellow in color and of excellent flavor.

BARBERRY: the berry of a shrub of prickly character, growing from four to nine feet in height, which in various types is found wild in nearly every temperate country. In the United States, it is particularly abundant in New England.

The fruit, of bright red color, ripens in October and November. It is too acid to be generally acceptable for eating raw, but it makes excellent preserves, jams, etc., and as such is very wholesome.



[Illustration: An illustration of a branch covered with rounded leaves and laden with several bunches of berries toward one end.]



The young leaves are of a bitter but pleasing flavor and are sometimes used as a salad and for garnishing.

The famous French jam known as "Confiture d'épine vinette" is manufactured, principally in Rouen, from the Seedless Barberry.

Barberries are also used in France for the manufacture of malic acid. On analysis they show in addition a small percentage of citric acid.

BAR-LE-DUC "JELLY": preserves, originally of selected seeded whole white currants, but now also of strawberries, raspberries, etc., manufactured in the French town of Bar-le-duc. The popular term "Bar-le-duc jelly," is misleading as the typical product is a jam or preserve, the berries remaining intact in a thin syrup. The title "Lorraine Jelly" is sometimes used, as the city of Bar-le-duc lies within the boundaries of the former province of Lorraine.

BARLEY (see Color Page opposite 526): a grain grown in nearly every part of the world, which has apparently been cultivated from the most remote antiquity. The Books of Moses and the early Greek and Roman writers make many references to it. The Greeks are said to have trained their athletes on it and "barley wine" or "beer" was enjoyed at a very early date.

Barley grows very rapidly, in the northern United States maturing in about three months after seed sowing. The greater part of the crop is consumed in the form of malt and malt products--beer and kindred beverages, whisky, etc.

Medicinally, barley is rated as the mildest of the cereals. It contains less protein and carbohydrates but more fats and salts than wheat. In various forms it is especially valuable as a part of invalid dietaries.

Barley Meal: the whole grain ground, is the form in which barley is generally sold for the manufacture of beer, whisky and other liquors. In the northern parts of Europe large quantities are also employed in bread making.

Barley Malt. See MALT.

Pot, or "Starch," Barley: is the grain deprived of its outer husk.

Pearled Barley: is the grain with both the outer and inner husks removed, followed by a polishing process. It is entitled to place as a "cereal" food, but in the


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average American household it is used only in soup or in preparation of home remedies for colds, etc.

The largest consumption of Pearled Barley, including practically the entire output of the finer grades, is among Hebrews, who prepare it both as a breakfast food and a pudding.

Patent Barley: is a flour obtained by grinding Pearled Barley. It has none of the acrid taste found in barley meal ground with the husks.

BARLEY HONEY: is a Japanese product made from barley starch, generally in combination with rice flour.

BARM: foam taken from the surface of fermented malt liquors. It is commonly known as Brewers' Yeast. See YEAST.

BARREL. See tables of Weights and Measures in APPENDIX.

BARROW, or Push-cart: a small carriage moved by hand. It should be kept well painted and under cover. In purchasing, care should be taken that the load balances evenly on the axle.

BARTER: dealing by an exchange of goods. This was the original mode of dealing before the use of money and is still very common wherever money and banking facilities are scarce. The country dealer is often obliged to take eggs, butter, etc., as pay for sugar, starch and soap, and when he can move the produce quickly and well, and is not paying too much for it, the barter seems to give a double profit, because he makes something on the sale of the groceries and something on the sale of the produce. But it is often a great snare for the following reasons:

First, the produce may move slowly and so tie up capital, even if it does not result in loss by deterioration of quality.

Second, the belief that there is a double profit in barter, leads the dealer to pay a higher price for goods taken in trade. There is really no double profit. For keeping, handling and selling groceries, one profit is realized; for receiving, shipping and selling produce, another profit should be earned--and the dealer who performs both for a single profit, is doing half his work for nothing.

Third, it requires all the average man's judgment and ability to run a grocery properly, and those who try to combine with it the business of buying and shipping produce, and its freights, sales, drafts, returns and commissions, generally find out that they are not masters of both, but that one eats up the profits of the other.

Fourth, barter leads to a competition in buying which is worse than that which "cuts" in selling, for the dealer who cuts the prices of his groceries, generally stops before he gets to cost, because he knows just where that point is, but the buyer who competes on produce does not know the price at which the goods will sell in the city and is often easily led into paying more than he can realize after all the charges are paid.

No dealer can afford to do two transactions for one profit; few are capable of managing a double business, and when goods are sold below their value or bought above it; it is well to let others control the market.



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BASIL: a highly aromatic herb, with a flavor resembling cloves. The common variety is seldom made use of, but there is a large type whose leaves are employed very generally in flavoring sauces and soups, especially Green and Mock Turtle soup. Basil vinegar is made by steeping the leaves in vinegar.



[Illustration: A stem of a plant with three branches, each of which terminates in a cone of tiny flowers.]



BASS: a well shaped, round and fleshy fish, of which there are three chief food varieties--the Striped, Sea and Black (or Fresh Water or Lake). The first two are found all along the Atlantic coast. The Striped Bass ranges in weight from half a pound to seventy-five pounds for some huge specimens and is in season all the year round. The Sea Bass averages from a half pound to five pounds and is in season from the middle of May to the end of December. The Black Bass averages about the same weight as the Sea Bass and is in season from June to December--its two principal types are the "Big Mouth" and "Small Mouth," the latter being considered the better. See illustrations of Striped Bass and Sea Bass in Color Page opposite 240.

BATH BRICK, or Bristol Brick: a dry brick used to polish steel knives and other cutlery, originally made from deposits of fine silicious sand found near Bath, England, but later made also at Bristol, England, and at South Hampton, N. H.

BATH BUN: a kind of light, sweet roll, generally round in shape and usually containing currants, etc. It takes its name from Bath, England, the city of its origin.

BAY LEAVES: the leaves of a shrub of the laurel variety, growing wild in Greece, Italy and other Mediterranean countries and in some Southern sections of the United States.

Among the ancient Greeks, the Bay Leaf was in large part dedicated to heroism and poetry, but modern usage consecrates it to the more material pleasures of the table. The principal consumption is of the dried leaf, used as flavoring for soups, etc.

BAY RUM: a liquor obtained by distilling Bay Leaves in rum, used as a perfume and hair tonic. It is generally imported from the West Indies. Imitations are plentiful, but very inferior in fragrance.

BEAD: the tiny, iridescent bubbles which, on agitation, form on the surface of some alcoholic liquors.

BEADING: any substance added to spirits to make them carry a "Bead," and to cling in drops on the sides of the bottle or glass.

BEAN: a vegetable which appears to have been cultivated long before the commencement of recorded history and in one variety or another to flourish in every part of the world. It was well known to the ancient Egyptians and Grecians--and when the first voyagers reached the Western continent they found that here also the growing of beans, and peas, had apparently always been a common industry among


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the natives--their preparation of beans and corn is perpetuated in "succotash."

The bean of European history is the Broad or Windsor variety, with broad curved pods, containing thick bulging seeds of distinct and agreeable flavor. It is largely grown in Europe and Canada but is not an important crop in the United States as the climate is not suitable for its best growth.



[Illustration: A short section of beanstalk laden with four bean pods.]



The principal beans of United States cultivation are the Kidney and Lima, both of them believed to be native to South America.

The Kidney Bean is the Haricot of the French and in Great Britain is sometimes called the French Bean. There are a great many varieties, capable of general classification into "tough podded" and "edible podded."

The "tough podded" class produces the bulk of the dried beans of commerce, variously known as "Kidney Beans," "Navy Beans," "Marrow Beans," "Black Beans," etc., in many colors, shapes and sizes. "Black" or "Turtle" Beans, grown chiefly in the Southern States, make an especially rich and excellent soup. Some varieties, as "Flageolets," are cultivated with special regard to the consumption of the fresh seeds or beans.

To the "edible-podded" class belong the numerous types of "Wax" or "Butter" beans, eaten fresh at all stages of development. The "Cranberry Bean" or "Red Speckled Bean," both shell and beans spotted or otherwise marked with red, is a variety cultivated principally in New England and popular there for making succotash.

String Beans, Snap Beans, French Beans are immature pods of numerous kinds of Kidney beans. The best have little or no "string." They should be so young that the seeds are barely visible and should be marketed as quickly as possible after gathering. In buying, see that they are crisp and tender when broken--toughness or limpness is a sign of too great age or overlong keeping.



[Illustration: An illustration of long beans on a stem in front of some broad leaves.]



String beans are kept for winter use by salting, both for home use and retailing. They are a popular winter vegetable among Germans. Before cooking, they are soaked in water over night to remove the salt.

Canned String Beans, described for quality as "Stringless," "Fancy," etc., are graded by size as "extra small," "small," etc. "Haricots Verts" are French string beans.

Lima Beans are flat, slightly kidney-shaped, and generally wrinkled or fluted. They are very popular, both fresh and dried, the green seeded types being considered the choicest. When dried, they serve as an agreeable winter food, soaked before cooking.



[Illustration: An illustration of two bean pods, which have been split open.]



Pea Beans are the Cowpeas of the agriculturist, but they belong to the bean family in spite of that title. They are grown in many varieties, bearing seeds of different styles and colors. Their principal use is as a forage plant and soil fertilizer, but considerable quantities are dried for winter use. They are cooked like other dried beans and have a very pleasing flavor.



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[Illustration: A color illustration of four similarly-shaped cuts of meat, each labeled with a number.]




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Among numerous other "special" varieties are the Soy Bean (which see), Asparagus Bean, Frijole, Lab-lab, Red Bean and Scarlet Runner.

Asparagus Beans take their name from the great length of their pods, which average twelve inches or more in length and in some varieties even exceed a length of three feet. By Chinese gardeners in California they are known as "Tou Kok." The seeds are small but the green pods make an excellent "Snap" bean. They are used only to a limited extent in the United States, principally by the Chinese and other residents of Oriental birth or extraction, but they are beginning to find favor also among the white residents of California. They have long been cultivated in Europe.

Frijole Beans are a small flat variety, generally of a reddish brown or light tan color, very common, both "green" and dried, in the Southwest and Mexico.

Lab-lab, or Egyptian Kidney, beans are frequently grown as an ornamental plant but they are very productive and under proper cultivation can be used both as String and Dried beans.

Red Beans are grown principally in the tropics. They are less liable to cause intestinal irritation than the ordinary bean, but they are difficult to transport because of their tender skins.

The Scarlet Runner is also cultivated here principally as an ornamental climber, but it is consumed in large quantities in Europe, especially in England, both as a string and green shell bean.

Selecting and cooking dried beans. Well dried, mature beans are smooth and shiny. If there are folds in the skins, it generally signifies poor drying or inferior quality. They should also be of uniform size and appearance. The most important qualification is that they should cook soft. The size is chiefly a matter of taste and the color, other things being equal, is unimportant. The prejudice against beans that grow dark in cooking is unfortunate as many of them are of fine quality and flavor and frequently more tender than the very white.



[Illustration: A woman sits in the rows of a field, holding a large basket full of beans. The silhouettes of several other workers can be seen in the backround.]



The first step in household cooking is the swelling of the bean and softening of the skin by soaking in cold water for generally not less than eight hours. Some cooks cover with hot water so as to shorten the time but the cold water method is preferable. The large Lima Beans after soaking may be easily slipped out of their skins by sieving or stirring in water, the skins rising to the top and being then skimmed off. After this process, beans can be boiled and served in many ways, whole, mashed as "bean pudding," in soup making, etc.

Beans, as also peas, are exceptionally rich in food value. Even when immature or "green" they are much more nutritious than other vegetables of popular use, and


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when ripe or "dry" they excel nearly all other foods--both animal and vegetable. They average at least as much protein as meat and nearly as much carbohydrates as wheat. The only lack is in the fat component. See FOOD VALUES.

BEAN FLOUR: pulverized dried or ripe beans. Used in the same way as Pea Flour (which see).

BEAR-LITHIA. See general article on table and medicinal MINERAL WATERS.

BEATEN BISCUIT, or "Maryland Biscuit": a kind of bread biscuit made without leavening. The folding and pounding of the dough encloses small quantities of air in minute blisters and these expanding in baking make the biscuit light and porous.

BECCAFICO, or "Fig-Pecker": a name given to numerous small birds, popularly supposed to live on figs, highly esteemed for the table in Southern Europe.

BEECHNUT: the seed of the beech-tree, one of the most beautiful members of the oak family, found in numerous varieties in this country and in Europe. The nuts--sharp-edged and triangular in shape--grow in pairs in a rather prickly scaly burr. The kernels are very tender and sweet flavored. See also NUTS (Food Values).

BEE GLUE, or Propolis: a kind of glue which bees use to close up cracks, especially any cracks that admit cold. They sometimes daub it on combs, often spoiling the appearance and ruining the sale of otherwise nice comb honey.

BEEF: is the most important of meats, the chief staple of the butcher and the leading food article in the average household.

It is a curious and in some respects an unfortunate fact that in different parts of the country there are many names for the same "cut," but Diagrams I and II on page 57, adapted from a recent Bulletin of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, illustrate a very widely accepted division of a whole beef and show the relative positions of the cuts in the animal and in a dressed side.

The Neck Piece is frequently cut so as to include more of the Chuck than is represented by the diagram.

The Shoulder Clod is usually cut without bone. The Shoulder (not indicated in the diagram) includes more or less of the shoulder blade and of the upper end of the Foreshank. Shoulder Steak is cut from the Chuck.

In many localities, the Plate is made to include all the parts of the forequarters designated on the diagrams as Brisket, Cross-ribs, Plate and Navel, and different portions of the Plate as thus cut are spoken of as the "brisket end of plate" and "navel end of plate." This part of the animal is largely used for corning.

The Ribs are frequently divided into "first" cut, the first three ribs constituting the choicest "prime" ribs of beef, "second" cut and "third" cut, the last-named lying nearest the Chuck and being slightly less desirable than the former.

The Chuck is sometimes sub-divided in a similar manner, the third cut being nearest the neck.

The names applied to different portions of the Loin vary considerably in different localities. With the Hip it is generally known as "hip-loin." The part nearest the


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[Illustration: A color illustration of two large cuts of meat. Each cut has its own caption.]




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[Illustration: An illustration of a bull whose body is divided into sections and labeled with the numbers 1-15, flanked by a diagram showing only the body of a cow without head or legs, also divided into sections and labeled with numbers.]




[Illustration: A diagram of the body of a cow without head or legs, divided into sections and labeled with the numbers 1-12.]




[Illustration: Two diagrams of the body of a cow without head or legs, divided into sections and labeled with numbers.]




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ribs is frequently called "small end of loin" or "small end sirloin" or "short steak." The other end of the loin is called "thick end sirloin" or "sirloin." Porter-house steaks are cut from the "thick end." The very tender strip of meat known as the "tenderloin" lies under or inside the hip-loin, being thickest at the hip part and gradually tapering off to a very narrow piece at the "small end."

It is not uncommon to find the Flank cut so as to include more of the loin than is indicated in the figures, in which case the upper portion is called "flank-steak." The larger part of the flank is frequently corned, as is also the case with the Rump.

In some markets, the Rump is cut so as to include a portion of the loin, which is then sold as "rump steak."

The portion of the Round on the inside of the leg is regarded as more tender than that on the outside, and is consequently preferred to the latter. As the leg lies upon the butcher's table this inside of the round is usually on the upper, or top, side, and is therefore called "top round."

The lower diagrams, (III, IV) show two other standard divisions--No. III, a method widely accepted by Chicago and Kansas City wholesale butchers, and Nos. IV and V a popular New York wholesale division.

The following table explains the separation shown on illustrations Nos. IV and V.
HINDQUARTERS
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
{